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Table of contents :
The Science of Religion, Spirituality, and Existentialism
Copyright
Contents
List of Contributors
Preface
Core existential concerns
The scope and treatment of the present volume
The broader context
References
1 Dwelling forever in the house of the lord: on the terror management function of religion
Terror management theory
The ontogeny of terror management
A brief phylogenic history of terror management
The experimental research supporting terror management theory
Research directly focused on the terror management function of religion
The association between religiosity and death anxiety
Mortality salience and investment in religiosity
Evidence that strong or bolstered religious belief reduces defensive responses to mortality salience
What about atheists?
Summary of the evidence
Broad implications of a terror management analysis of religion
WARNING!!! DUMMY ENTRY
The upside of religion
The downside of religion
A tale of two worldviews
A rock
A hard place
Conclusion
References
Further reading
2 Death anxiety and religious belief: a critical review
Are people afraid of death? Pt 1: Evidence from lists
Are people afraid of death? Pt 2: Evidence from scales
Are people afraid of death? Pt 3: Death anxiety and proximity to death
Are people afraid of death? Pt 4: Death anxiety and mortality salience
Are people afraid of death? Coda
Are death anxiety and religiosity correlated?
Does mortality salience increase religious belief?
Concluding remarks
References
3 Face to face with death: the role of religion in coping with suffering
How do people usually cope with existential concerns?
The existential and individual functions of religious beliefs
Conceptualizing God
When beliefs fail
Suffering elicits existential concerns
Facing death
Disasters
Terminal and chronic illness
Trauma
Religion and suffering: fighting, freezing, fleeing, or flourishing
Toward existentially resilient religion
Concluding thoughts
Acknowledgment
References
4 Near-death experiences: the mystical feeling of “crossing over” and its impact on faith and spirituality
Near-death experience phenomenology
Defining near-death experiences
Historical reports and estimated incidence of near-death experiences
Disclosure of near-death experiences
Explanatory models for near-death experiences
Physiological explanations
Psychological explanations
Psychopathological explanations
Nonmaterialist explanations
Impact of near-death experiences
References
5 Reactance and spiritual possibilities: an application of psychological reactance theory
Psychological reactance theory
Historical roots
Psychological reactance theory framework
Freedoms
Elimination and threats to freedom
Arousal of reactance
Restoration of freedom
Psychological reactance theory and religion
Question 1: Threats to religious freedom and reactance
Psychological reactance theory predictions
Supporting evidence
Impersonal freedom threats
Oppositional behavioral outcomes
Subjective outcomes
Positive evaluation
Anger and source derogation
Summary: Question 1
Question 2: Restrictive faith-based regulations and reactance
Psychological reactance theory predictions
Supporting evidence
Controlling language
Persuasive intent
Summary: Question 2
Question 3: Avoiding or minimizing reactance
Psychological reactance theory predictions
Supporting evidence
Avoiding reactance arousal
Autonomy-supportive language
Narrative
Reducing reactance arousal
Restoration postscripts
Inoculation
Message sensation value
Summary: Question 3
Future directions
Moderators
Expanding catalysts of reactance
Expanding outcomes of reactance
Conclusion
References
6 Understanding the psychology of religion: the contribution of self-determination theory
The core concepts of self-determination theory
How self-determination theory helps us understand different forms of religiosity
Self-determination theory’s perspective compared with other conceptualizations about religiosity
Different religious motivations correspond to different ways of approaching religious contents
Connection between different motivations for religious behaviors and well-being and social outcomes
The antecedents of religious internalization in the family
How larger social context could predict self-determined religiosity
Discussion and conclusion
Some practical implications
References
7 A goals perspective on religion and spirituality
The existential relevance of goals
Religion and spirituality through the lens of goals: ultimate existential concerns and subjective well-being
Subjective well-being
Sanctifying the “everyday”
Sanctifying objects
Sanctifying locations
Sanctifying behavior
Goal frustration, conflict, and religious zeal
Are religious and spiritual goals optimal for existential security?
References
8 Religion and spirituality, free will, and effective self-regulation
What is free will?
Philosophical terminology
The psychological construct of free will belief
The social-cognition of free will
Moral judgments and responsibility
Punishment and retributive versus restorative justice motives
Self-other bias in free will perceptions
Effects of free will beliefs
Prosocial behavior
Conformity
Gratitude
Religion, spirituality, and motivated action
Self-control
Rational choice
Planful behavior
Values
Behavioral change
Taking initiative
Religion and self-regulation
Self-regulation as a limited resource
Religion’s influence in facilitating effective self-regulation
Concluding remarks
References
Further reading
9 Authenticity and the true self in religion and spirituality
The historical emergence of authenticity concerns and their ties to religion
The true self and authenticity: perspectives from existential philosophy and psychology
The interplay of religion and authenticity: conceptual and empirical considerations
Having religious experiences
Self-transcendence in religious experience
The noetic quality in religious experiences
Suggestions for future research
Holding religious beliefs
Theistic beliefs
Body–soul dualism
Having a religious identity
Participating in religious communities
Religion as a means of meeting belongingness needs
Participation in religious rituals
Morality: the key to understanding the relationship between religion and authenticity?
Concluding thoughts: is religion uniquely relevant to authenticity?
References
10 Freedom as a cross to bear: choice overload, the burdens of freedom, and the benefits of constraint
Choice overload and paralysis
“Freedom,” “choice,” “autonomy,” and the “self”
Sincerity and authenticity
From “You Are What You Do” to “You Are What You Own”
Freedom, choice, and welfare: a nonmonotonic relation
Religion, spirituality, freedom, and choice
References
11 Social ostracism, religion, and existential concerns
Temporal need-threat model of ostracism
Reflexive stage
Reflective stage
Resignation stage
Religion and ostracism
Religion as a potential source of ostracism
Ostracism for religious protection
Ostracism for religious correction and (if necessary) ejection
Ostracism and God
Religion as a potential response to ostracism
Ostracism and extremism
Concluding remarks
References
Further reading
12 The holy grail of connection: I-sharing, existential isolation, and religion
Existential isolation
I-sharing
Faith-based practices and existential connection
I-sharing, intergroup outcomes, and faith
Summary
References
13 An attachment theory perspective on religion and spirituality
Attachment theory: basic concepts
Religion and attachment: normative aspects
Points of departure
Seeking and maintaining proximity to God
God as a safe haven
God as a secure base
The attachment figure is perceived to be stronger and wiser
Summary
Religion as attachment: individual differences
The correspondence pathway
The compensation pathway
Coda
References
14 A social identity approach to religion: religiosity at the nexus of personal and collective self
Religion, prejudice, and collective action
Religious orientations
Religious ideology: orthodoxy, fundamentalism, and components of right-wing authoritarianism
Specificity of prejudice targets and social identity
Social identity and the religious self
Social identity and religious opinion–based groups
SIMCA and EMSICA models of social identity and collective action
The normative alignment model of social action and opinion-based group interventions
Ideology-based social identities
A tripartite social identity normative model of religious fundamentalism
Summary of group-based models
Religion, self-structure, and personal well-being
The salience model of self-categories
Convergent perspectives from theories of the personal self
Self-complexity and the multiple self-aspects model
Complexity versus coherence
Convergent perspectives of the self from social identity theorizing
Religious identity and personal well-being
Summary of person-based models
Final summary and conclusion
References
15 Religion and the construction of identity
An existential perspective on religion and the construction of identity
Existential perspectives on identity and religion
An existential perspective on identity
An existential perspective on religion
Psychological approaches to the relation between religion and identity
A triaxial model
Common psychological approaches to religion and identity
Assimilation to personality
Assimilation to the social
Experimental existential psychology research on the religious identity
Toward an integrative model of religion and identity
Integrative approaches to the x-axis
Integrative approaches to the z-axis
Further reflections on the z-axis: secularism and existential identity
A closing note on the origin
References
16 Truth and significance: a 3N model (needs, narratives, networks) perspective on religion
Need(s)
The epistemic need to know
Religiosity and the need to understand the world
Religiosity and the need to understand other people
The need for personal significance
Joint working of the two needs
Narrative
Common characteristics of religious narratives
Differences between narratives
Personal narratives
Network
Religion as a social phenomenon
Religious groups as a source of shared reality
Religious identification as a source of certainty and significance
Uniqueness of religious groups
Interplay between the 3Ns
Conclusion
References
Further reading
17 Existential uncertainty and religion
What is religion, and what is uncertainty?
Religion
Uncertainty
Informational uncertainty
Personal uncertainty
Putting the two together
Why does religion help people deal with uncertainty?
Uncertainty-identity theory
Identifying with social groups helps alleviate uncertainty
Entitative groups are especially good at alleviating uncertainty
Why are religions useful?
Reactive approach motivation theory
Uncertainty related to goal pursuit is anxiety-inducing
Zealously approaching a different goal can quell this anxiety
Why are religions useful?
Compensatory control theory
Personal and external control reassure people that the world is orderly
Why are religions useful?
System-justification theory
Construing the system in a negative light causes dissonance
Reconstruing the system in a more positive light reduces dissonance
Why are religions useful?
Integrating the four perspectives
How is each type of uncertainty alleviated by religion?
Informational uncertainty: the purview of reactive approach motivation and compensatory control
Personal uncertainty: the purview of uncertainty identity and system justification
Future directions for this field
Considering religion’s influence on uncertainty
Conducting cross-cultural investigations
The relationship between uncertainty and religious fundamentalism
Increasing uncertainty may lead to increasing fundamentalism
Increasing uncertainty may lead to increasing support for the status quo
Resolving the apparent conflict
Conclusion
References
18 Cosmic Dad or Cthulhu: why we will always need (religious) absolutes
Anxiety gives rise to the (religious) Absolute
Kierkegaard and cosmic horror
Anxiety dissolves the (religious) Absolute
Freud and cosmic delusions
Anxiety gives rise to and dissolves (any) Absolute
Camus and absurd heroes
Neuroscience of the Absolute
Your brain is a meaning-making machine
Your brain is a meaning-maintenance machine
Anxiety is everywhere
The eternal recurrence of the Absolute
References
19 Religiousness and meaning making following stressful life events
The meaning making model
Religiousness and global meaning
Religion and meaning in stressful life circumstances
Religiousness and initial appraisals of stressful events
Religiousness and discrepancy/distress
Religiousness and meaning making coping
Religiousness and meanings made
Changes in appraised meaning
Changes in global meaning
Religiousness and stress-related growth
Future directions in research on religiousness and meaning making
References
Further reading
20 Meaning, religious/spiritual struggles, and well-being
Overview of the positive psychology of religions and spirituality
The mixed blessing of supernaturalism
R/S struggles
Divine struggle
Demonic struggle
Interpersonal struggle
Moral struggle
Doubt struggle
Ultimate meaning struggle
Review of recent research relating R/S struggles to well-being and R/S meaning
Potential for growth and spiritual maturity
Conclusion
References
Further reading
21 In his own image: an existential evolutionary perspective on the origins and function of religion
Terror-management theory’s perspective on religion
Integrating terror management and evolutionary perspectives on religion
Theory of mind
Fear and anxiety
Disgust
Inability to imagine nonexistence
Mind–body dualism
Elaborating concepts of powerful deities to transcend death
Conceptual metaphor
Moral intuitions
Social aspects of religion
Religion as social signal
Evangelism, missionary activity, and the spreading of religious beliefs
Religious specialization and social power
Social cohesion and summing up
The costs of religion
Concluding thoughts
References
Further reading
22 Fear not: religion and emotion regulation in coping with existential concerns
Forms of coping with fear of death
Religion and problem-focused coping with fear of death
Belief in supernatural beings
The afterlife and mind–body dualism
Human uniqueness
Summary
Religion and emotion-focused coping with fear of death
Selecting emotion-focused coping
Perceived control
Resources
Enacting emotion-focused coping
Beliefs
Emotion goals
Strategies
Cognitive reappraisal
Rumination
Distraction
Acceptance
Summary
Religion and coping with fear of death: reinterpreting existing findings
Conclusion
References
Further reading
23 Existential givens, religion, and neuroscience
Death awareness
The neuroscience of death awareness
Death awareness and religion
Freedom, choice, and responsibility
Freedom and neuroscience
Freedom and religion
Isolation
Neuroscience of isolation
Isolation and religion
Meaning
Religion, neuroscience, and meaning
A goal perspective on meaning and religion
Conclusion
Outlook
References
24 The existential implications of individual differences in religious defensive and growth orientations: fundamentalism, q...
The existential function of religion
Religious orientations: maintaining faith and managing existential concerns
The fundamentalist orientation
The religious quest orientation
The conventional religious orientations
Conclusion
References
25 Existential therapy, religion, and mindfulness
Introduction
Understanding mindfulness
Defining mindfulness and variations of mindfulness
Research on mindfulness
Comparison between mindfulness and existential-humanistic psychology
Here-and-now focus
Accepting and exploring emotions and their meaning
Embodied meditation
The ego and self in existential psychology and mindfulness
Quieting the ego
Ego, self-esteem, and self-acceptance in existential psychology and mindfulness
The self in existential psychology
The role of meaning
Conclusion
References
Further reading
26 Science and religion: a rocky relationship shaped by shared psychological functions
Science and religion: a brief history
Science and religion: key shared functions
Need for explanation
Need for control
Need for existential meaning
Differences in processes: assumptions and biases
Science and religion in action: morality and mortality concerns
Morality
Mortality
Conclusion
References
27 Of flesh and blood: death, creatureliness, and incarnational ambivalence toward the Divine
Terror management and human corporeality
Death, creatureliness, and incarnational ambivalence toward the Divine
Dehumanization and objectification of women
Conclusion
References
28 Religion: more essential (and existential) nutrient than opiate for the masses
Motivating religion
The belief in an afterlife exorcizes death
Religion provides global meaning and significance
External agents are in control so we can feel free
I believe, therefore I am
Religion, morality, and identity
Religion and morality
From morality to community
Grave questions for future research
Conclusion
References
Further reading
29 Politics and religion: commutable, conflicting, and collaborative systems for satisfying the need for order
Compensatory control theory
God as a source of control and order
Secular and sociopolitical systems as a source of control and order
The substitutable nature of god and government
Symbolic alignment between sociopolitical and religious sources of control and order
Conclusion
References
30 The paradox of faith: how existential concerns motivate both prosocial and antisocial religious behaviors
Terror management and the motivational underpinnings of religion
Empirical evidence for the death-denying function of pro- and anti-social religious behaviors
Testing for the existential allure of faith
Religious tribalism as the default response to mortality salience
The moderating role of intrinsic religiosity
The curious case of fundamentalism
Who, then, follows the light?
Can religious worldviews be deinstitutionalized?
Changes at the societal level
Salient prosocial norms
Common human experiences
Cash ≠ king
Changes at the individual level
Conversion
Quest orientation
Consciousness of mortality
Conclusion
References
31 Religion and health: building existential bridges
The framework of an existential religion–health perspective
Using the awareness of mortality to bridge religion and health
Basic processes for managing awareness of mortality
Terror management health model
Death, religion, and health
Using the search for meaning to bridge religion and health
Meaning and health
Religion, meaning, and health
Using existential isolation to bridge religion and health
Religion as a solution
God as a bridge and ravine
Using freedom to bridge religion and health
Freedom and the health benefits of religion
Freedom, religion, and health behavior change
The burden of freedom
Looking forward
References
Index